The continent’s biggest cities are systematically restricting Airbnb-style accommodation – and the trend is accelerating. Barcelona plans to eliminate all 10,101 tourist apartment licences by November 2028. Amsterdam is cutting its annual rental cap to just 15 nights in core neighbourhoods. Paris has reduced its cap to 90 days, backed by fines of up to €100,000. Madrid has banned tourist apartments from residential buildings across its historic centre.
These are not isolated moves. An EU-wide regulation taking effect on 20 May 2026 will require all short-term rental (STR) hosts to register on a pan-European database and platforms to share booking data with authorities monthly. Housing displacement – not overtourism alone – is the dominant policy driver, though both forces are deeply intertwined.
The scale of the shift is significant. Spain fined Airbnb €64 million in December 2025 for advertising unlicensed listings. Amsterdam’s Airbnb listings fell 54% between 2019 and 2024. Florence’s introduction of a national identification code saw an estimated 20–30% of STR listings disappear as non-compliant operators exited. Berlin has returned 8,105 apartments to the residential housing market. For hotels, the constrained STR environment is restoring pricing power – European hotel RevPAR grew 4.7% year-on-year in mid-2025, with regulated cities showing particular strength. For travellers, the picture is more mixed: fewer affordable options in city centres, higher hotel prices, and a growing shift toward medium-term rentals that fall through regulatory gaps.
Nine cities leading Europe's regulatory crackdown
Barcelona – the most aggressive approach in Europe
Barcelona has taken the most radical position of any major European city. In June 2024, Mayor Jaume Collboni announced that all existing tourist apartment licences would expire by November 2028, with no renewals or transfers permitted. Spain’s Constitutional Court upheld the plan in March 2025, providing definitive legal certainty. By early 2026, over 3,500 apartments had already been recovered as primary housing.
The city’s regulatory arsenal is formidable. Operating without a licence carries fines of up to €600,000. Since April 2025, homeowners’ association approval (a 60% vote) is required for any tourist rental activity. In December 2025, Spain’s consumer affairs ministry fined Airbnb €64 million – six times the platform’s alleged profits from non-compliant listings – for advertising 65,122 listings that breached consumer protection rules.
The stated motivation is squarely about housing. Rents in Barcelona have risen 68% and purchase prices 38% over the past decade. The city hosts 26 million tourists annually against a resident population of just 1.6 million. Research from the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona found that for every 100 new Airbnb advertisements, rents grew by 3.5% and housing prices by 8.5% – with Airbnb proliferation explaining approximately 20% of price increases between 2007 and 2017. Airbnb counters that its high-occupancy listings represent only 0.94% of Barcelona’s housing stock and that rents surged 37% even after strict regulations began in 2014.
Amsterdam – the escalation ladder
Amsterdam’s approach is methodical and escalating. Having reduced its annual cap from 60 to 30 nights in 2019, the city announced in December 2025 a further reduction to 15 nights per year in eight high-nuisance neighbourhoods – expected to take effect from April 2026. These neighbourhoods, including the Jordaan, Grachtengordel, and Oude Pijp, qualified because at least 30% of residents reported experiencing STR-related disturbance.
The city operates a formal “holiday rental escalation ladder” – a seven-tier policy framework culminating in temporary total bans of up to four years in areas with the most complaints. All hosts must hold an annual vacation rental permit (€76), register before each stay, and limit guests to four per rental period. The city has also banned new hotel construction, raised VAT on overnight stays from 9% to 21% in January 2026, and maintains a 12.5% tourist tax – creating a combined tax burden on accommodation of roughly 33.5%.
The impact on listings has been dramatic. Airbnb-specific listings fell 54% between 2019 and 2024, dropping from roughly 30,000 at the 2018 peak to around 4,830 by mid-2025. Academic research found that Amsterdam’s share of housing units withdrawn from the market due to Airbnb dropped from 0.54% in 2015 to 0.068% in 2020. However, broader STR market data from Lighthouse Intelligence shows listings across all platforms actually increased from 6,015 to 8,199 between January 2023 and January 2025, suggesting that as Airbnb’s market share shrank, other platforms and new entrants partially replaced lost supply. Long-term rents nonetheless increased 34% between 2019 and 2024, compared with 13% nationally.
Paris – the Loi Le Meur tightens the screw
France enacted comprehensive national legislation in November 2024 – the Loi Le Meur – strengthening local regulation of furnished tourist rentals. The law allows municipalities in housing-shortage zones to reduce the primary-residence STR cap from 120 to 90 days, introduces energy performance requirements (G-rated properties banned immediately, F-rated from 2028), and doubles maximum fines to €100,000. Paris voted unanimously in December 2024 to adopt the 90-day cap from 1 January 2025.
Enforcement has sharpened considerably. In February 2026, two Paris property owners were fined €80,000 and €150,000 respectively for unregistered listings. France’s supreme court ruled that platforms bear legal responsibility for non-compliant advertisements. The city estimates roughly 25,000 fraudulent advertisements remain active, while 31.7% of hosts have multiple listings – indicating significant commercial professionalisation. A national registration portal is scheduled to become operational by 20 May 2026, aligning with the EU-wide regulation.
Paris hosts an estimated 55,000–95,000 Airbnb listings (figures vary by source and methodology), serving approximately 50 million tourists annually. Deputy Mayor Ian Brossat has accused Airbnb of effectively removing 20,000 homes from Paris’s residential market. The city’s rents have risen 42% since 2009, despite rent controls introduced in 2015.
Madrid – Plan RESIDE transforms the centre
Madrid’s approach crystallised rapidly. After suspending new holiday rental licences in April 2024, the city definitively approved Plan RESIDE in August 2025. The centrepiece: within the historic centre (inside the M-30 ring road), individual tourist apartments are banned from all residential buildings. Only entire buildings dedicated exclusively to tourist accommodation are permitted. Higher fines of up to €190,000 apply, and inspections surged 90% in 2024. Between July and November 2025, 2,662 listings disappeared from Inside Airbnb data.
The scale of Madrid’s STR challenge was considerable. Of roughly 16,100 tourist flats operating in the city by late 2024, only 7.45% held valid licences. The Centro district alone contained 6,755 units – 42% of the city total – offering over 25,000 beds. At the national level, Spain created a national registry of short-term rentals effective from July 2025, which received over 215,000 applications in its first six months, with more than 20% denied.
Florence – banning new rentals, banning key boxes
Florence has layered multiple restrictions. A ban on new STR listings in the UNESCO-protected historic centre, first passed in September 2023, was briefly overturned by the regional court in July 2024 before being reinstated within three weeks. In the brief window, over 3,000 new STR applications were submitted – illustrating the market pressure. The ban was expanded in May 2025 to cover the Oltrarno neighbourhood as well.
In a distinctive move, Florence banned self-check-in key lockboxes city-wide from February 2025, with fines of €400 per lockbox and the power to physically remove them – citing “urban decorum” and public safety. All operators must now obtain a five-year permit. Italy’s national identification code (CIN) requirement, mandatory from January 2025, reportedly led to 20–30% of short-term rentals disappearing as non-compliant owners exited. Florence’s STR listings grew from roughly 6,000 in 2016 to approximately 14,378 by 2024, with 75% concentrated in just 5% of the city’s territory.
Lisbon – policy whiplash between governments
Lisbon’s regulatory trajectory has been turbulent. The previous Socialist government’s Mais Habitação law (October 2023) suspended new STR licence issuance nationwide. The centre-right government that followed revoked most restrictions in November 2024, restoring licence transferability and ending the national freeze. But Lisbon’s city council moved immediately to suspend all new registrations locally, extending the suspension in May 2025 while developing stricter rules.
In November 2025, Lisbon approved a new regulation establishing absolute containment (no new licences) in any parish where STRs exceed 10% of housing stock, and relative containment (exceptional authorisation only) where the ratio sits between 5% and 10%. Six central parishes, including Santa Maria Maior and Misericórdia, fell into the absolute containment category. Nationwide, approximately 45,000 STR licences face cancellation by summer 2026 due to non-compliance with insurance and registration requirements. In Lisbon specifically, roughly 7,000 of 18,600 licences face revocation.
Portugal’s housing crisis context is severe. Property prices in Lisbon jumped from roughly €3,000–3,500/sqm in 2020 to €5,642/sqm by June 2025. Median rents climbed 53% since 2017. Academic research found that a one percentage point increase in Airbnb’s share of housing led to a 3.7% increase in house prices on average – and over 30% in the historic centres of Lisbon and Porto.
Berlin, Edinburgh, and Venice
Berlin operates under its Zweckentfremdungsverbot (misuse of housing law), which prohibits renting residential housing as a holiday let without permission. Secondary residences face a 90-day annual cap. Fines reach up to €500,000. The city has returned 8,105 apartments to the residential market since the law took effect, and several districts are now drafting bans on short-term furnished accommodation in milieu protection areas to close a loophole exploited by landlords to circumvent rent controls. Academic research found each additional commercial Airbnb listing displaces 0.23–0.37 rental units and increases rent by 1.3–2.4%.
Edinburgh became Scotland’s first short-term let control area in September 2022, meaning any change of use to STR requires planning permission. Over 4,000 licence applications were received, but the scheme has been contentious. Airbnb’s analysis suggests a 22% reduction in self-catering rentals since 2019, while average hotel prices in Edinburgh rose 11.5% – nearly double the national average. Airbnb guests during the 2024 Edinburgh Fringe Festival dropped 13% year-on-year, with lengths of stay falling by nearly 20%. Edinburgh will introduce a visitor levy on all paid overnight accommodation from July 2026.
Venice has taken the globally unprecedented step of charging day-trippers an entry fee – €5 if booked in advance, €10 if not – applied on 60 peak days in 2026. The fee generated €5.4 million from over 720,000 payers in 2025. However, Venice’s city council has conspicuously failed to pass STR-specific legislation despite having unique national authority to do so since 2022. A proposed two-year moratorium on new STR authorisations was blocked on procedural grounds in March 2026. The city’s population has declined from 174,000 in the 1950s to below 48,000 today, while tourist beds now outnumber residents in the historic centre. On peak days, tourists outnumber residents 400 to 1.
Other cities joining the trend
Budapest imposed a city-wide moratorium on new STR registrations from January 2025, and District VI (Terézváros) enacted a complete ban on short-term rentals from January 2026 – upheld by Hungary’s Supreme Court in November 2025. The ban followed a local referendum in which 54% voted in favour. The district had roughly 2,700 active STR listings comprising 8% of its housing stock.
Dubrovnik has imposed an absolute cap on STR beds within its Old Town, with the cap essentially fully utilised. New rental permits near the Old Town are banned. The city has begun buying apartments to offer young families on 10-year leases. Prague is implementing a mandatory electronic registration system and granting municipalities powers to determine permit numbers and rental-day caps. Athens froze new STR licences in central neighbourhoods in 2025, while Vienna limits short-term rentals to 90 days and is reportedly considering a city-centre ban. Dublin caps primary-residence STR at 90 days in rent pressure zones and is proposing to preclude new STR planning permissions in towns with populations above 20,000.
How STR restrictions are lifting hotel performance
The evidence that tighter STR regulation benefits hotels is consistent, though disentangling it from broader post-pandemic recovery and inflationary effects is difficult. A peer-reviewed study by Falk and Yang (2021), published in Tourism Management, used difference-in-differences modelling across roughly 80 European cities and found that stricter STR regulations led to an average 9% increase in hotel overnight stays. The study confirmed that STRs and hotels are substitutes, particularly in the budget and midscale segments.
City-level data reinforces this finding. Amsterdam’s hotels achieved an ADR of approximately $202 and RevPAR roughly 10% above 2019 levels through 2024, operating in what analysts describe as a “quasi-monopoly” environment thanks to constrained supply. Barcelona’s hotel ADR averaged over €195.50 in the first half of 2025, up 3.1% year-on-year. Across Europe’s hotel sector broadly, RevPAR grew 4.7% year-on-year in mid-2025, with ADR up 2.4% and occupancy rising 1.6 percentage points. Industry publication TheHotelBlueprint noted directly that “in Paris, Amsterdam and Barcelona, stricter licensing has curbed new STR listings, restoring leverage to hotels.”
In Amsterdam, total tourist overnight stays increased by 12% even as STR nights fell by 52% after the 2022 tightening – a near-perfect demonstration of demand shifting to hotels. Paris hotel prices rose an estimated 77% over six years (Oxford Economics, commissioned by Airbnb), even as nearly 4,000 new hotel rooms were added to the market. The demand-shift effect is most evident in segments that previously competed directly with short-term rentals: midscale and upscale urban properties.
What this means for travellers
The most immediate impact on travellers is fewer affordable options in city centres and higher prices. With STR supply contracting in regulated cities, budget-conscious visitors – particularly families who relied on kitchen-equipped apartments and multiple bedrooms – face a narrower range of alternatives. Airbnb’s own data shows 39% of its EU guests travel as families. These demographics value features hotels often cannot match at comparable price points.
However, the picture is more nuanced than a simple loss of choice. Total tourist volumes in major European cities continue to rise – EU-wide STR guest nights reached 854 million in 2024, up 67% from 2019’s 512 million. The accommodation mix is shifting rather than shrinking. Hotels accounted for 75% of the 207 million additional guest nights gained by Europe’s top 10 cities between 2021 and 2023.
A significant secondary effect is the growth of medium-term rentals – stays of one month to one year – that fall through regulatory gaps. These now constitute an estimated 20% of Airbnb listings in Paris and 40% in Barcelona (Inside Airbnb data, cited in a European Parliament study). While this provides options for digital nomads and business travellers, it simultaneously removes properties from both the tourist-accommodation and long-term residential markets, potentially worsening the housing problem that regulations aimed to solve.
There is also evidence of geographic redistribution. Academic research by Trouillard (2024) found that stricter regulations in one city lead to STR growth in less-regulated destinations – a displacement rather than demand-destruction effect. Eurostat data shows countries with lighter regulation experiencing strong STR growth: Malta’s guest nights rose 33.5% in early 2025, Finland 23.6%, and Bulgaria 22.3%. For travellers, this means a gradual push toward secondary cities and alternative destinations where STR supply remains abundant and prices competitive.
Housing displacement, not overtourism alone
The research is clear: housing displacement is the dominant formal policy driver across nearly every city examined, though overtourism provides the visible political pressure that accelerates action.
A major European Parliament study published in September 2025, authored by Professor Claire Colomb of the University of Cambridge, frames STR regulation squarely around housing impacts: “In places with tight housing markets, [STR growth] has contributed to a decrease in the supply of long-term rentals; added to the existing rise in rental and sale prices; and fuelled the displacement of long-term residents.” A peer-reviewed analysis of 16 European cities (Celata and Bei, 2023) categorised the primary regulatory aims city by city: housing preservation dominated in Amsterdam, Berlin, Vienna, Brussels, Madrid, and Paris. Only Barcelona explicitly cited overtourism as a co-equal driver alongside housing.
The academic evidence on housing impact is robust. The seminal study by Barron, Kung, and Proserpio (published in Marketing Science) found a 1% increase in Airbnb listings leads to a 0.018% increase in rents and a 0.026% increase in house prices. A Barcelona-specific study in the Journal of Urban Economics found Airbnb increased rents by 1.9% and transaction prices by 4.6% at the average neighbourhood level, rising to 7% and 14–17% respectively in the most tourist-heavy areas. Research on San Sebastián found that a one-unit increase in Airbnb listings per 100 housing units raised average monthly rents by €49.45.
Yet overtourism is the primary popular mobiliser. Spain’s 2024–2025 anti-tourism protests, beginning with 20,000–50,000 demonstrators in the Canary Islands and spreading to Barcelona, Mallorca, Málaga, and beyond, generated intense media attention and political pressure. In June 2025, the Southern Europe Against Touristification network coordinated simultaneous protests across Barcelona, Mallorca, Venice, and Lisbon. Slogans included “One more tourist, one less resident” – encapsulating how the two issues merge in public consciousness.
The distinction matters for policy. Housing displacement can be addressed through registration schemes, night caps, and zoning controls that target commercial operators while preserving genuine home-sharing. Overtourism requires broader destination management – visitor caps, tourist taxes, infrastructure investment, and geographic dispersal strategies. Cities that conflate the two risk implementing measures that constrain accommodation supply without addressing the fundamental imbalances of mass tourism. An important caveat from World Habitat’s CEO David Ireland bears noting: “Over-emphasising [STR] impact risks overlooking deeper structural issues driving housing scarcity, from financing and supply constraints to decades of underinvestment in affordable homes.”
STR's - Navigating the regulatory tide
The regulatory direction across Europe is unambiguous – every major city has tightened rules in 2024–2026, and none has loosened them. Platforms face a strategic choice between continued resistance and constructive engagement.
Embrace proactive data sharing. The evidence is clear that platform cooperation dramatically improves regulatory outcomes. In France, the introduction of registration numbers on Airbnb listings led to a 20% drop in non-compliant listings. Airbnb’s City Portal – now active with over 300 cities and tourism organisations – provides compliance tools, but adoption remains uneven. Going beyond minimum compliance with Regulation (EU) 2024/1028, and actively building seamless digital infrastructure for data exchange, would strengthen platforms’ social licence to operate.
Differentiate genuine home-sharing from commercial operations. Multiple academic and policy sources recommend platforms create clear, tiered systems distinguishing occasional hosts (renting a room or their own home while away) from professional multi-property operators. The European Parliament study found this distinction is fundamental to effective regulation. Platforms that help make this distinction – rather than obscuring it – position themselves as partners rather than adversaries.
Stop litigating and start co-designing. A Cambridge Law Journal study (2024) documented how platforms “actively exploited” legal uncertainty to resist regulation. Spain’s €64 million fine on Airbnb is a concrete cost of adversarial positioning. Constructive examples exist: in Ibiza and Murcia, Airbnb has committed to actively supporting enforcement of existing rules. The gap between Airbnb’s stated welcome of “proportionate rules” and its ongoing litigation undermines credibility.
Address the medium-term rental grey zone. Stricter STR rules have pushed operators toward stays of one to twelve months that dodge both short-term and long-term rental regulations. Platforms could proactively flag and manage this category rather than allowing what amounts to regulatory arbitrage – which is already drawing political attention and risks triggering further crackdowns.
Contribute concretely to housing. Airbnb’s pledge to “carry out more research” on housing impacts has been criticised as insufficient. More tangible steps could include contributing to affordable housing funds (Barcelona already requires compensation mechanisms where tourist-use conversion must provide equivalent housing), supporting schemes that return properties to long-term markets in saturated zones, and investing in geographic dispersal of tourism. Airbnb’s own data shows 59% of EU guest nights already occur outside major cities – amplifying this trend could ease pressure on the neighbourhoods where conflict is most acute.
The regulatory direction across Europe is unambiguous – every major city has tightened rules in 2024–2026, and none has loosened them. Platforms face a strategic choice between continued resistance and constructive engagement.
Embrace proactive data sharing. The evidence is clear that platform cooperation dramatically improves regulatory outcomes. In France, the introduction of registration numbers on Airbnb listings led to a 20% drop in non-compliant listings. Airbnb’s City Portal – now active with over 300 cities and tourism organisations – provides compliance tools, but adoption remains uneven. Going beyond minimum compliance with Regulation (EU) 2024/1028, and actively building seamless digital infrastructure for data exchange, would strengthen platforms’ social licence to operate.
Differentiate genuine home-sharing from commercial operations. Multiple academic and policy sources recommend platforms create clear, tiered systems distinguishing occasional hosts (renting a room or their own home while away) from professional multi-property operators. The European Parliament study found this distinction is fundamental to effective regulation. Platforms that help make this distinction – rather than obscuring it – position themselves as partners rather than adversaries.
Stop litigating and start co-designing. A Cambridge Law Journal study (2024) documented how platforms “actively exploited” legal uncertainty to resist regulation. Spain’s €64 million fine on Airbnb is a concrete cost of adversarial positioning. Constructive examples exist: in Ibiza and Murcia, Airbnb has committed to actively supporting enforcement of existing rules. The gap between Airbnb’s stated welcome of “proportionate rules” and its ongoing litigation undermines credibility.
Address the medium-term rental grey zone. Stricter STR rules have pushed operators toward stays of one to twelve months that dodge both short-term and long-term rental regulations. Platforms could proactively flag and manage this category rather than allowing what amounts to regulatory arbitrage – which is already drawing political attention and risks triggering further crackdowns.
Contribute concretely to housing. Airbnb’s pledge to “carry out more research” on housing impacts has been criticised as insufficient. More tangible steps could include contributing to affordable housing funds (Barcelona already requires compensation mechanisms where tourist-use conversion must provide equivalent housing), supporting schemes that return properties to long-term markets in saturated zones, and investing in geographic dispersal of tourism. Airbnb’s own data shows 59% of EU guest nights already occur outside major cities – amplifying this trend could ease pressure on the neighbourhoods where conflict is most acute.
Conclusion
Europe’s regulatory wave against short-term rentals is not a passing political mood – it is a structural shift with legislative force, judicial backing, and growing EU-level coordination. The pattern is consistent: registration requirements tightening into night caps, escalating into zoning bans, and backed by dramatically increased fines and enforcement capacity. The EU regulation taking effect in May 2026 will give authorities across all 27 member states the data infrastructure to enforce rules that many cities have had on paper but lacked the tools to implement.
For the hotel sector, this represents a durable tailwind. Constrained STR supply in Europe’s most visited cities is restoring pricing power, particularly in the midscale segment that competed most directly with Airbnb-style accommodation. Amsterdam’s quasi-monopoly conditions – steady 80% occupancy with rising ADR – may become the norm in other heavily regulated markets.
The critical insight is that housing displacement, rather than overtourism, provides the legal and policy foundation for regulation – even where overtourism generates the political urgency. This distinction has practical implications: it means regulation will likely persist and deepen regardless of tourism trends, because the housing crisis in European cities is structural and intensifying. Cities are not merely managing visitor flows; they are fighting to retain their resident populations. Venice’s decline from 174,000 to under 48,000 residents, Barcelona’s 68% rent increase, and Lisbon’s 53% climb since 2017 are the numbers that drive policy.
For STR platforms, the choice is between shaping regulation from within or being shaped by it from without. The companies that thrive in Europe’s next decade will be those that pivot from resistance to constructive engagement – distinguishing genuine home-sharing from commercial exploitation, sharing data transparently, contributing to housing solutions, and helping distribute tourism’s benefits more equitably. The window for voluntary action is narrowing; the Loi Le Meur, Plan RESIDE, and the EU regulation signal that where platforms do not self-regulate, governments will regulate for them.
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